Hydrogen Storage Methods: Opportunities, Safety, Risk, and Compliance Assessment

Abstract

Hydrogen storage is a central enabling element for the large-scale deployment of hydrogen as a low-carbon energy carrier, directly shaping the feasibility, cost, safety, and regulatory acceptability of hydrogen supply chains. This article synthesizes the principal hydrogen storage methods, compressed gaseous hydrogen (CGH₂), liquefied hydrogen (LH₂), cryocompressed hydrogen (CcH₂), physically adsorbed hydrogen in porous media, metal and complex hydrides, and liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC), and evaluates their deployment relevance through an integrated opportunity–risk–compliance lens. First, the study summarizes the operating principles and system-level trade-offs of each pathway, emphasizing application-dependent performance constraints in volumetric/gravimetric density, refueling dynamics, thermal management, and infrastructure compatibility. Second, it maps sectoral opportunities across mobility, industrial hubs, maritime and aviation logistics, power-system balancing, and long-duration/seasonal storage, demonstrating that technology suitability is strongly conditioned by duty cycle, utilization rate, footprint constraints, and the availability of heat and cryogenic logistics. Third, the article develops a structured safety, risk, and compliance assessment framework that consolidates key hazard domains, high-pressure failure modes, cryogenic exposure and boil-off governance, hydrogen embrittlement and leakage/dispersion risks, thermally coupled reaction hazards in materials and carriers, and emergency venting and fire escalation control into a unified safety case aligned with codes, standards, and local permitting pathways. The integrated assessment supports robust technology screening and project bankability by linking sector-specific value propositions to verifiable safeguard strategies and compliance deliverables, thereby advancing safer and more scalable hydrogen storage deployment.